Min+Ji+G10

= =

**__ Should we genetically modify humans?

__** **__ Definitions __** you might want to know to help you understand this page ** "Human Genetic Engineering” ** is the genetic engineering of humans by modifying the genotype of the unborn individual to control what traits it will possess when born." (Wikipedia, 2008) “**Transduction**” is the transfer of genetic material from one microorganism to another by a viral agent (as a bacteriophage) (Online Merriam-Webster dictionary) “**Vector**” is an agent (as a plasmid or virus) that contains or carries modified genetic material (as recombinant DNA) and can be used to introduce exogenous genes into the genome of an organism (Online Merriam-Webster dictionary) “**Germ line**” is the cellular lineage of a sexually reproducing organism from which eggs and sperm are derived; //also//: the genetic material contained in this cellular lineage which can be passed to the next generation (Online Merriam-Webster dictionary) (NOT SOURCED CORRECTLY!)  **How would it be done? **** – Somatic cell manipulation, or “gene therapy” **

Basically, Somatic cell manipulation is to modify genetic information of a living organism by putting other’s genetic material into the gene of the recipient as naked DNA, or by viral vectors. This is **__negative genetic engineering__**, and its purpose is mainly to cure diseases. There are two ways of carrying out Somatic cell manipulation: //in vivo//, and //ex vivo,// which means inside the body and outside the body.

** In vivo ** Gene manipulation takes place inside the body. Materials are injected into the body via many routes: “rubbing on the skin, applying in drops to the eyes, inhalation, swallowing, injection, or perfusion into the bloodstream or directly into the tissues such muscle of solid tumors.” (Ho,2008) The decision of which route to use depends on the location of the target cells. No case with in vivo procedure is reported to be successful. ** Ex vivo ** Transduction of constructs is done outside the body and is reintroduced into the body later. __Almost__ all attempts to cure disease in adults or children through somatic cell manipulation have failed. (Massey, 2008) **__Virus Insertion __** This is the current technology that people use to change DNA; people take advantage of viruses. Viruses proliferate by using other cells to copy viruses themselves. To make other cell organisms work for them, virus “hi-jacks” other cell mechanism by inserting a segment of their genome into the DNA of the host organism after penetrating the cellular wall. (Wikipedia, 2008) Then the host cell is instructed to make multiple copies of viruses. So, people first alter the DNA of viruses as they want and then put the viruses into the target cells. The virus would work the same, and the designed DNA sequence will spread out in the body of host. Some problems of this technology would be 1) randomness, which might result in turning cells cancerous or disrupting cells, 2) lack of control over the immune system to the “retrovirus” and 3) complete transformation of the target cell population. (Wikipedia, 2008) The major limitation of current technology is the lack of “finer control on how DNA sequences might be added to a host cell.” (Wikipedia, 2008) With current technology, we cannot instruct viruses to migrate to a particular specified nucleotide sequence in the host DNA. We cannot control in how much degree – how large enough - the viruses migrate so that targeting errors are minimized. We also cannot “insert the desired snippet in the correct position in the host” precisely and efficiently enough. (Wikipedia, 2008) Diagram 1: How VIruss Work. This diagram shows how viruses 'hi-jack' the host cells. (Google, 2008) **__Vectors __** Naked DNAs are also available for somatic cell manipulation, but it does not work as good as viral vectors. Viral vectors, however, have some risks as well. New viruses might appear due to recombination. Vectors might activate endogenous viruses. Genetic disturbances like cancer may occur. There is also a possibility of acute fatal reactions, as some vectors are immunogenic. Followings are some examples of viral vectors. ** Adeno-associated viral vectors (AAV) ** was thought to be integrating at a defined spot (chromosome 19), but researchers in the department of medicine, University of Washington Seattle, recently reported that it works in at least 6 different places. In addition, immune response occurs against it. AAV needs help from viruses such as herpes simplex or adenovirus. ** Retroviral vectors ** were first to be used. However, it is not the first choice anymore because of low titres, and lack of stable expression. Also, it cannot affect non-dividing cells. Recombination within cells – thus leading to activation of pre-existing, dormant retroviruses – is feared, too. ** Adenoviral vectors ** can infect non-dividing cells, but not stem cells, so treatment should be repeated at intervals. Another limitation of this vector is that after many applications, cells become uninfected by them. A high dose of adenovirus was the cause of Gelsinger’s death in 1990: liver failure followed by multi-organ failure. (Ho, 2008) Diagram below will help you understand how they enter the host cell. Diagram 2 : Gene Therapy using an adenovirus vector ("gene therapy: Definition and Much More from Answers.com", 2008)

**[u657iIn what cases might this be justified? ~566~ ~ ~ 092 ~ ~ ~362 ~ ** Basically, when one has ** diseases ** which can be cured through genetic modifications, the technology should be used and that is justifiable. - “In April 2002, a team in London’s Great Ormond Street Hospital in Britain used gene therapy to sure a child with X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID). They followed the approach taken earlier by the team at the Hospital Necker-Enfants Malades in Pairs, which involved ex vivo manipulation of bone marrow stem cells.” (Ho, 2008)  --- In such cases above, gene therapy should be justified, because a person could survive thanks to the technology. ** Diseases that can possibly be treated with gene therapy ** are…   Rare single-gene inherited disorders such as cystic fibrosis and sickle-cell anaemia, multi-factorial disorders such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes, cancers and infectious diseases. (Ho, 2008) Spina bifida and autism are other examples of genetic disorder. ** Gene Therapy for **** Cancer **  Today, a variety of methods to treat cancer through genetic approach are in clinical trials. They focus on treatment to cancer cells, blood supply, the immune system and the bone marrow. **__ Possible solutions to cancer via genetic modifications are… __** __ The tumor suppressor gene p53: __ This gene causes cells to die when damage to genes is severe. It is in clinical trials with certain lung, head and neck cancers. __ Suicide gene: __ As anybody can assume from its name, it kills cells with enzymes it produces. The enzyme makes toxic compound. This method blocks DNA synthesis, and thus leading to cell death. __ Anti-angiogenic gene therapy: __ It uses inhibitors of blood vessel formation in tumors. It also tries to genetically enhance anti-tumor immune responses of immune cells. __ Cytokine-based therapy: __ This one also enhances the immune response to tumors. (Ho, 2008) **__ JiOne World Issues us  ~0843342   [!!!!!@$$%^#%Ji]] __**  Generally, somatic cell manipulation – which deals with mostly non-dividing cells – is generally accepted by most people. However, it is Germ line manipulation that matters, because this type of modification affects future generations while Gene Therapy doesn’t. __**Ethical Aspect** __ “Many advocates of germline engineering say it is needed to allow couples to avoid passing on genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis or sickle cell anemia” (Hayes, 2000) However, today’s new technology can offer the same thing, without modifying genes. “Germ line manipulation is necessary only if you wish to "enhance" your children with genes they wouldn't be able to get from you or your partner.” (Hayes, 2000) Not only that germ line modification virtually ignores human rights of both the lives that are destroyed during the process, the social and civil rights of newborns - that will be genetically altered as a result – are ignored. These newborns have no choice about participating. “The United Nations' International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which the U.S. ratified in 1992, prohibits medical or scientific experimentation on individuals who have not consented freely to participate.” (Massey, 2008) The quality of human life will also be influenced. For example, the first ever cloned sheep in the world, Dolly, is prone to obesity. We can't be sure enough that it will be different for humankind. There might be some genetic defects, which we don't know. It can potentially shorten human lives, and if so, what's the point of genetically modifying humans? Furthermore, Dolly was one of 277 attempts, which means many lives have been destroyed during the process of cloning. Although the genetic modifications can possibly provide the opportunities of longer life span, if great number of other lives are going to be sacrificed, that's unethical. "The Children of God for Life group, based in Clearwater, Florida, declares that the destruction of embryo in the creation of humans would be selfish and cannibalistic." (Pinkerton, 2003) **__Social Aspect __<span style="font-size: 14pt; color: rgb(153, 51, 102); font-family: Verdana"> ** “Koshland writes, "… We are facing monumental problems with the population explosion, environmental pollution, the shortage of fossil fuels, and the serious lack of leadership....Should we turn our back on new methodologies that might bring us smarter people and better leaders who are more responsible in their lives?..."” (Massey, 2008) However, so far there isn’t any evidence that gene manipulation can foster good leadership or responsibilities, and some silly decisions, or problems in the world were created by some “smarter” people. (Massey, 2008) Also, genetic modifications are directly related to eugenics. "The Nazis used the word "therapeutic" to justify their evil schemes, and now pro-cloning scientists use the same word to defend what they do." (Pinkerton, 2003) This worsens people’s concern about genetic modification becoming an indicator of social status or wealth, like brand clothes or luxuries or expensive cars today. The genetic modification of humans will bring about extreme social distinction/discrimination or I should say even a new type of racism between people who are genetically modified and people who are not. Genetically modified human will possess superior ability to “natural” humans, so either modified humans look down on unmodified humans, or unmodified humans fear modified ones, and try to put them under their control. Today, even without this possible gap of genetic enhancement, gap between the rich and the poor are already severe. “In the future that Silver envisions, the divide between rich and poor would be permanently coded into our cells, much as Aldous Huxley foretold in BRAVE NEW WORLD in 1932” (Massey, 2008.) Also, the cost would not be so cheap, thus intensifying the social gap. Even though we could do mass production or something similar, considering all the equipment and difficulties it entails, not every single person would be able to afford the application. media type="youtube" key="FO4VDIv4sV4&hl=en" height="355" width="425" Video 1: Gundam Seed. This video is a piece of Gundam Seed. This Japanese anime is about the war between genetically modified humans and “natural” humans. It illustrates the possibility of some tragedies that genetic modifications might bring in future, as well as criticism of human’s war activity. (Freedom4ver, 2006) ** Work Cited Page ** Freedom4ver. "Gundam SEED OVA - Between The Stars." __youtube__. 20 Mar. 2006. 20 Apr. 2008 <www.youtube.com/watch?v=FO4VDIv4sV4>.

"gene therapy: Definition and Much More from Answers.com." __Answers.com - Online Dictionary, Encyclopedia and much more__. Accessed 20 Apr. 2008 http://www.answers.com/topic/gene-therapy?cat=health. "Germline." __Merriam-Webster__. Accessed 20 Apr. 2008 http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/germline.

"Google ?u0339??u02fb??tp://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/gene/sf11x1virus.jpg." __Google Image Search__. 20 Apr. 2008 [|http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/gene/sf11x1virus.jpg&imgrefurl=http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/gene/mol_gen.htm&h=344&w=700&sz=49&hl=ko&start=20&tbnid=6HzKO0uaZv4OIM:&tbnh=69&tbnw=140&prev=/images%3Fq%3D%2Bvirus%2Binsertion%2BGM%2Bhumans%26gbv%3D2%26hl%3Dko%26newwindow%3D1. </span]> Hayes, Richard. "The Politics of Genetically Engineered Humans, by Richard Hayes." __rat haus reality, ratical branch__. 9 May 2000. 20 Apr. 2008 <[|http://www.ratical.org/co-globalize/PoGEH.html>.] Ho, Mae-Wan, and Joe Cummins. "Genetically Modified Humans: for What and for Whom?" __Institute__ __of Science__ __in Society__. Accessed 17 Apr. 2008 <[|http://www.i-sis.org.uk/GMhumans.php>.]

"Human Genetic Engineering." __Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia__. Accessed 17 Apr. 2008 <[|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_genetic_engineering>.]

Massey, Rachel , and Peter Montague. "Genetically Engineered Humans-- Part 2 ." __Organic Consumers Association__. Accessed 14 Apr. 2008 < __ [|http://www.organicconsumers.org/patent/gehuman2.cfm>. __<span] style="FONT-FAMILY: Verdana; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: 굴림; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt">

Pinkerton, James. "Genetically Modified Humans." __Mario Di Maggio's Website__. 15 Jan. 2003. 17 Apr. 2008 <http://www.dimaggio/Eye-Openers/genetically modified humans.htm>.__

__"Transduction."__ Merriam-Webster__. Accessed 20 Apr. 2008 <[|http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/transduction>. <span] style="FONT-FAMILY: Verdana; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: 굴림; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt">__ __    "Vector." Def. 3. __Merriam-Webster__. Accessed 20 Apr. 2008 <[|http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vector>.]

__** <span style="font-family: 바탕"><span style="font-family: 바탕">  <span style="color: rgb(239, 6, 6)">Mr. Covington's Comments **__<span style="color: rgb(239, 6, 6)">

**<span style="color: rgb(239, 6, 6)">-Excellent information

Crit A: 6 Crit B: 6 **